• Author:
  • Lundgren, Regina E.
  • McMakin, Andrea H.
• Subject:
  Computer Communications & Networking
• Published by:
  John Wiley & Sons Inc (US)
• Published:
  29/06/2009
• Price:
  $120.00
• <  Buy this book  >

When health, safety, or environmental risks take center stage, communicating risk information can be a daunting challenge. Professionals, scientists, engineers, and students will benefit from the contemporary, practical advice offered here on what to do and what to avoid for successful risk communication. Outstanding features include the melding of scientific research with hands-on advice from risk practitioners. The book is a valuable introduction to the field as well as a refresher and reference book for practitioners.

Regina E. Lundgren is an independent consultant with more than twenty years of experience in communicating environmental, safety, and health risks to lay audiences. The recipient of national and international awards, she developed the risk communication plan for the most sophisticated cancer cluster investigation in the nation's history and one of the first state-level public health emergency risk communication plans.

Andrea H. Mcmakin is a marketing and communications specialist at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory. For more than twenty years, she's been involved with risk communication programs in national and global security, climate change, health and environmental impacts, worker chemical exposure, and risk perception research. Her work has been published and cited in technical journals, scientific and trade publications, and major regional newspapers.

Preface

1 INTRODUCTION

To Begin

The Risk Communication Process

Audiences, Situations, and Purposes

References

PART I UNDERSTANDING RISK COMMUNICATION

2 APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATING RISK

Communication Process Approach

National Research Council’s Approach

Mental Models Approach

Crisis Communication Approach

Convergence Communication Approach

Three-Challenge Approach

Social Constructionist Approach

Hazard Plus Outrage Approach

Mental Noise Approach

Social Network Contagion Approach

Social Amplification of Risk Approach

Social Trust Approach

Evolutionary Theory Approach

Summary

References

Additional Resources

3 LAWS THAT MANDATE RISK COMMUNICATION

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

Executive Order 12898, Environmental Justice in Minority Populations

Executive Order 13045, Reduce Environmental Health and Safety Risks 28

to Children

National Environmental Policy Act

Natural Resource Damage Assessment

Occupational Safety and Health Act

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Risk Management Program Rule

Privacy Rule

Other Government Inducements

International Standards

North American Standards

Grants

Summary

References

Additional Resources

4 CONSTRAINTS TO EFFECTIVE RISK COMMUNICATION

Constraints on the Communicator

Organizational Constraints

Emotional Constraints

Constraints from the Audience

Hostility and Outrage

Panic and Denial

Apathy

Mistrust of Risk Assessment

Disagreements on the Acceptable Magnitude of Risk

Lack of Faith in Science and Institutions

Learning Difficulties

Constraints for Both Communicator and Audience

Stigma

Stability of the Knowledge Base

Summary

References

Additional Resources

5 ETHICAL ISSUES

Social Ethics

The Sociopolitical Environment’s Influence

The Use of the Risk Idiom

Fairness of the Risk

Consequences of Multiple Meanings

The Issue of Stigma

Organizational Ethics

Legitimacy of Representation

Designation of Primary Audience

Releasing Information

Attitude toward Compliance with Regulations

Personal Ethics

Using Persuasion

The Role of the Communicator

Organizational Ethics or Personal Ethics?

Summary

References

Additional Resources  

6 PRINCIPLES OF RISK COMMUNICATION

Principles of Process

Know Your Communication Limits and Purpose

Whenever Possible, Pretest Your Message

Communicate Early, Often, and Fully

Remember That Perception is Reality

Principles of Presentation

Know Your Audience

Do Not Limit Yourself to One Form or One Method

Simplify Language and Presentation, Not Content

Be Objective, Not Subjective

Communicate Honestly, Clearly, and Compassionately

Listen and Deal with Specific Concerns

Convey the Same Information to All Segments of Your Audience

Deal with Uncertainty

Principles for Comparing Risks

Use Analogies, but Do Not Trivialize

Use Ranges

Compare to Standards

Compare to Other Estimates of the Same Risk

Compare Traits

Do Not Compare Risks with Different Levels of Associated Outrage

Explain Reductions in Magnitude

Summary

References

Additional Resources  

PART II PLANNING THE RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORT

7 DETERMINE PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES

Factors That Influence Purpose and Objectives

Legal Issues

Organizational Requirements

The Risk Itself

Audience Requirements

Checklist for Determining Purpose and Objectives

Reference

Additional Resources  

8 ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE

Begin with Purpose and Objectives

Choose a Level of Analysis

Determine Key Audience Characteristics

Determine How to Find Audience Analysis Information

Incorporate Audience Analysis Information into Risk Communication

Efforts

Checklist for Audience Analysis

References

Additional Resources  

9 DEVELOP YOUR MESSAGE

Common Pitfalls

Information People Want

Mental Models

Message Mapping

Health Risk Communication

Crisis Communication

Checklist for Message Development

References

Additional Resources  

10 DETERMINE THE APPROPRIATE METHODS

Information Materials

Visual Representation of Risk

Face-to-Face Communication

Working with the News Media

Stakeholder Participation

Technology-Assisted Communication

Checklist for Determining Methods

Additional Resources  

11 SET A SCHEDULE

Legal Requirements

Organizational Requirements

The Scientific Process

Ongoing Activities

Audience Needs

Checklist for Setting Schedules

References  

12 DEVELOP A COMMUNICATION PLAN

What to Include in a Communication Plan

Developing Risk Communication Strategies

Storyboarding as a Planning Tool

Communication Planning Using the CERCLA Approach

Using an Audience Focus

Strategic Planning for Risk Communication

Checklist for Communication Planning

References

Additional Resources  

PART III PUTTING RISK COMMUNICATION INTO ACTION

13 INFORMATION MATERIALS

Constructing Information Materials

Information to Be Included

Organizing Material for Information Materials

Language for Information Materials

Narrative Style in Information Materials

Guidelines for Specific Types of Information Materials

Newsletters

Pamphlets, Booklets, and Fact Sheets

Posters, Advertisements, and Displays

Articles

Technical Reports

Checklist for Information Materials

References

Additional Resources

14 VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF RISKS

Design Visuals for Specific Audiences and Uses

Match the Visual Portrayal to the Information to Be Conveyed

Pretest Graphics with Those Who Will Use Them

Using Visuals to Personalize Risk Information

Comparing Risks in Visual Formats

Depicting Probability and Uncertainty

Presenting Probability

Presenting Uncertainty

Probability Plus Uncertainty

Warning Labels

Consider Using Action Levels

Ethical Portrayal of Risk Information

Using Visual Information in Group Decision Making

Checklist for Visual Representation of Risk

References

Additional Resources  

15 FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION

Constructing Face-to-Face Messages

Choose the Appropriate Spokesperson

Give the Audience Something to Take Away

Reinforce Your Message with Visual Aids

Speak in the Language of the Audience

Do Not Promise What You Cannot Deliver

Guidelines for Specific Types of Face-to-Face Communication

Speaking Engagements

Speakers Bureaus

Tours and Demonstrations

Video Presentations

Audience Interviews

Information Fairs

Training

Checklist for Face-to-Face Communication

References

Additional Resource  

16 WORKING WITH THE MEDIA

The Roles of Mass Media in Risk Communication

Media Contrasted with Other Stakeholders

Productive Interaction, Not Polarization

Understand “Cultural” Differences

The Media are Event-Focused

Certain Kinds of Risks Get More Coverage

Journalistic Independence and Deadlines Affect Content

The Need for Balance Invites Opposing Views

Information is Condensed, Simplified, and Personalized

Guidelines for Specific Situations

Develop Relationships with Local and Regional Media Representatives

Know When to Approach Media Representatives or When They May

Approach You

Prepare Messages and Materials Carefully

Know Where to Draw the Line

Put Your Message in Terms the Reporter’s Audience Can Understand

Put the Risk in Perspective

Respect the Reporter’s Deadlines

Maintain Ethical Standards of Disclosure

Take Action When Inaccurate or Misleading Material is Published

or Aired

Using Technology

Distribution Services

Video and Audio News Releases

Social Media

Public Service Announcements

Telebriefings

Special Case: The Use of Mass Media in Public Health Campaigns

Paid Placements or Independent Coverage

Guidelines

Checklist for Media Approaches

References

Additional Resources  

17 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION

Requirements for Stakeholder Participation

Organizational Requirements for Successful Stakeholder Participation

Stakeholder Requirements for Successful Participation

Guidelines for Specific Types of Stakeholder Participation Activities

The Formal Hearing

Group Interactions

Interactions Involving Risk Assessment

Interactions Involving Decision Making

Interactions Involving Risk Management

Evaluating Stakeholder Participation Based on Your Situation

Checklist for Stakeholder Participation

References

Additional Resources  

18 TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED COMMUNICATION

Choosing Technology-Based Applications

Computers in the Workplace

Computer-Based Training

Informing Employees about Risks

Web-Delivered and Stand-Alone Multimedia Programs

Web Tools, CDs, and DVDs

Web and Satellite Broadcasts

Social Media and Other Interactive Forums

Blogs and Podcasts

Social Network Sites

Traditional Electronic Forums

Interactive Multimedia Programs in Public Places

Technology in Care Communication

Technology in Consensus Communication

Websites

Local Area Networks, Extranets, and Bulletin Boards

Computers in Centralized Public Locations

Tracking and Analyzing Comments and Responses

Facilitating Group Decision Making

Technology in Crisis Communication

Checklist for Technology-Assisted Communication

References

Additional Resources  

PART IV EVALUATING RISK COMMUNICATION EFFORTS

19 Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts

Why Evaluate Risk Communication Efforts?

The Meaning of Success

Types of Evaluation

Conducting the Evaluation

Checklist for Evaluating Risk Communication Efforts

References

Additional Resources

PART V SPECIAL CASES IN RISK COMMUNICATION

20 EMERGENCY RISK COMMUNICATION

Understanding Emergency Risk Communication

Emotions and Public Actions

Credibility and Trust

Planning for the Unexpected

Preparing Your Organization

Teaming with Other Organizations

Working with Communities in Advance

Determining Appropriate Communication Methods

Developing an Emergency Risk Communication Plan

Communicating During an Emergency

Emergency Operation Centers

Working with the Media in an Emergency

Answering Questions

Communicating After an Emergency

References

Additional Resources  

21 International Risk Communication

Recognize the Similarities

Account for Cultural Differences

Look for “Your” Risk in Other Countries

Plan for Cross-Country Communication

References

Additional Resources  

RESOURCES

GLOSSARY

INDEX

ABOUT THE AUTHORS